Pro Life vs Pro Choice Essay Example for Free

Pro Life vs Pro Choice Essay â€Å"Pro Life† people that believe that for example a fetus is a human and abortion should be considered murder vs. â€Å"Pro Choice† people that for example believe its up to them and no one else a subject that has been a sensitive moral issue for people through out the entire world. The issue we currently have in hand is should abortion be allowed or not and why or why not. This issue should be looked at very carefully because it does not just effect one person it affects other people’s lives as well. There are many utilitarian’s or should we call them people that are Pro Choice out there in this world that believe that when an issue comes about, the issue when handled should offer the most positive out come not only for oneself but for others as well. When women take the time and make sure that getting an abortion is the best thing to do, some of the reasons they are considering or should be considered is; am I ready to be a mom if the conclusion is you are not ready to become a mom it could be because of what is currently going on in your life. For example, if it’s you still are in school and would like to continue your education. A very important reason one to be considered the highest is not having a supportive boyfriend or husband, you can’t do it by yourself. Some will say that they cannot afford a child at this point and time. How will you be able to feed, cloth, and shelter your child with out the necessary means? Another thing that must be considered is will the mother or child be able to survive the birth. If there is a guarantee then there should be no questions asked, if the mother wants to have an abortion then it is her right to make that decision, if she knows she could possibly die from giving birth, and she is not allowed an abortion wouldn’t that be considered suicide or murder. Judith Jarvis Thomson states, â€Å" I think that the premise is false, that the fetus is not a person from the moment of conception. A newly fertilized ovum, a newly implanted clump of cells, is no more a person than an acorn is an oak tree. But I shall not discuss any of this. For it seems to me to be of great interest to ask what happens if, for the sake of argument, we allow the premise. How, precisely, are we supposed to get from there to the conclusion that abortion is morally impermissible† (Thomson) . On the other hand people that are Pro Life will argue the fact that fetuses are human beings and it is morally wrong to take their life from them, they say that it is against god or any higher power but that argument can be considered a little â€Å"flakey†, that seems like they are telling you to be a religious person, with the possibility of so many complications it is extremely dangerous on the mothers end, there is always the option to put your child up for adoption, you should know and or trust that the state will put your infant in a good family. No society will allow any human to intentionally harm or take the life of another human being without any form of punishment, and abortion should be considered no different. Doctors and nurses promised to save our lives, not destroy them. Don Marquis of the University of Kansas asks a different question â€Å" Do we have the same reasons not to kill a fetus that we have not to kill an adult?† killing adults he says, is wrong because it deprives them of their future. But in Killing a fetus, we are also depriving it of its future. Thus, it seems inconsistent to object one but not the other.† (Marquis) We all know that there are always going to be arguments on abortion being right or wrong. Each side both has value able points that they bring up in discussion. Morally its hard to say, you can always give your opinion but it ultimately its on a personal level and no one else’s beliefs should be forced upon you. I personally believe that it should be allowed. There are more positive reasons why it should be allowed. In my opinion some of those reasons are if you know your child will be ill and not be able to take care of him or herself at all, if there is a chance the mother or child wont be able to survive the birth. However, I do not believe that only one side should be taken, it is wrong to kill a human being no matter what state they are in his or her life. If abortion was to be socially accepted then there might be safer ways to come about, or more people would want to adopt which would make it a win win for all. But what it really boils down to is it’s up to the m other and no one else, it’s her body, and her child and it should ultimately be up to her.

The Effects Of Transformational Leadership Education Essay

The Effects Of Transformational Leadership Education Essay In recent years, educational leaders have been voicing concerns about higher burnout rates among special education teachers as compared with teachers in general education (Fore, Martin, Bender, 2002). Many factors contribute to burnout in special education. Increased teaching workloads, shrinking school budgets, increasing demands for accountability, and disruptive students are often blamed (Byrne, 1994; Fore et al., 2002). The recession that took place in the United States in 2007 has significantly exacerbated these issues. Teachers, including special educators, must cope with the issues that come from difficult economic times. As budget tightens, teachers have to face layoffs or are being forced to take pay cuts and unpaid furlough days (Oliff Johnson, 2010). They have to worry about providing for themselves and also putting in the time and effort to promote a conductive learning environment for their students. This makes them stressful and reduces their morale to teach to the be st of their capabilities (Reeves, 2010). Furthermore, special education teachers are asked to do more with less than before this includes rising teacher pupil ratios (Center for Public Education, 2010). In special education, this means teachers have to teach students with a broader range of disabilities and grade levels. Moreover, teachers are unable to use as many of the same resources that they used before, and the school supplies, materials, and other resources that have previously been given are slowly being taken back (Center for Public Education, 2010). With the end of the federal stimulus funds that helped prevent severe education cuts, many school districts will face a more stressful budget shortfall in the next few years (Husch, Banton, Cummings, Mazer, Sigritz, 2010). All these problems can make special educators more vulnerable to burnout. Burnout has been defined as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988, p. 297). Emotional exhaustion refers to the feelings of being drained or used up by the clients (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Emotional exhaustion also is identified as feelings of strain, particularly chronic fatigue resulting from overtaxing work (Hakanen, Bakker, Schaufeli, 2006, p. 498). Teachers who have experienced this sense of emotional exhaustion report feeling dread at the thought of having to put in another day on the job and often put distance between themselves and coworkers and students (Schwab, Jackson, Schuler, 1986, p. 15). This distancing of oneself from the students is the second aspect of burnout, depersonalization (Schwab et al., 1986). Leiter and Maslach (1988) defined depersonalization as developing an unfeeling and callous response toward clients. Depersonalization is also referred to as cynicism, indifferent, or a distant attitude toward work in general and the people with whom one works (Hakanen et al., 2006). The third aspect of burnout is reduced personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988). Workers tend to have a negative appraisal of themselves as well as their work with clients (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Teachers who suffer from burnout are unable to function effectively in their jobs, unable to give much of themselves to students, and frequently exhibit negative, cynical, and callous attitudes toward their jobs (Byrne, 1993). A number of studies have shown that teacher burnout may lower student achievement. Teachers who experience job burnout are more likely to criticize students, which in turn reduce students self-efficacy, motivation to learn, completeness of understanding, and creativity (Huberman Vandenberghe, 1999; Maslach Leiter, 1999). Researchers found teachers who experience burnout have reduced motivation, impaired performance, and higher rates for leaving the teachi ng profession (Byrne, 1993; Fore et al., 2002; Schwab et al., 1986). The vital role that supervisors play in affecting teachers propensity towards burnout was observed in research (Russell, Altmaier, Van Velzen, 1987; Sarros Sarros, 1992; Zabel Zabel, 2001). Supportive supervisors are likely to provide positive feedback concerning supervisees skills and abilities, which may make them less vulnerable to burnout. Russell et al. (1987) reported teachers who felt support and received positive feedback from supervisors were less vulnerable to burnout. Zabel and Zabel (2001) showed special education teachers were less likely to experience burnout when they receive more support from administrators, peers, and parents. According to Sarros and Sarros (1992), the importance of supervisor and principal support cannot be underestimated as a critical resource for addressing teacher burnout. Rose (1998) found that incidence of burnout can be reduced by high-quality leader-member exchange relationships. Positive contact with supportive supervisors is also a strong deterrent to the factors that lead to burnout. According to Leiter and Maslach (1988), unpleasant contacts with supervisors were associated with all three aspects of burnout. Their research showed that stressful interactions with supervisors lead to emotional exhaustion that causes depersonalization, which in turn leads to diminished feelings of personal accomplishment. However, little research has focused on the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and burnout dimensions, and the empirical evidence is inconclusive. One possible reason for the inconclusive evidence is that previous literature overlooks a psychological mechanism that may be a powerful mediator to account for the relationship. In addition, very few studies have investigated the effect of transformational leadership style of supervisors on burnout among special education teachers. The purpose of this paper was to fill the gap by examining the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and teacher burnout in special education while accounting for the mediating role of teachers calling. Literature Review Transformational Leadership and Job Burnout Transformational leadership. Transformational leadership theory is central to understanding the relationship between transformational leadership style of supervisors and the levels of burnout among special education teachers in this study. According to Fry (2003), transformational leadership is an intrinsically based motivational process whereby leaders engage followers to create a connection that raises the level effort and moral aspiration in both (p. 702). Northouse (2004) proposed transformational leadership refers to the process whereby an individual engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower (p. 170). Transformational leaders inspire followers to achieve positive outcomes by giving meaning to their work and understanding their personal needs (Boerner, Eisenbeiss, Griesser, 2007). The transformational leadership theory identifies four behaviors such as inspirational motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration that motivate followers intrinsically to give their best efforts and change their attitudes toward their work (Bass, 1999). Bass described idealized influence as shown by leaders whose behaviors can serve as an example to be emulated by followers and encourage followers to perform their best (Bass, Avolio, Jung, Berson, 2003). Furthermore, transformational leaders provide one with a sense of making a difference through service to others by emphasizing the importance of purpose, commitment, and the ethical consequences of decisions. Such leaders are admired as role models; they generate pride, loyalty, confidence, and alignment around a shared purpose (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Bass (1997) described that inspirational motivation is displayed by leaders who articulate an appealing vision of the future, challenge followers with high standards, talk optimistically and with enthusiasm, and provide encouragement and meaning for what needs to be done (p. 133). In doing so, transformational leaders lift up the efforts and work morale of their followers through enhancing the sense of calling, which in turn help improve individual productivities and organizational outcomes. Transformational leaders empower their followers by developing them into high involvement individuals (Bass, 1999, p. 9) and followers will transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization (Bass, 1985, p. 15). Individualized consideration is described as leaders [who] deal with others as individuals; consider their individual needs, abilities and aspirations; listen attentively; further their development; advise; teach; and coach (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Transformational leaders pay attention to followers needs and support and coach their growth through individualized consideration. The leaders can help followers analyze their work-related problems and seek possible solutions. As a consequence, the transformational leadership helps prevent the feeling of being strained (i.e., emotional exhaustion) or distancing themselves from coworkers and students (i.e., depersonalization), and increase the assessment of their personal accomplishment. Intellectual stimulation is demonstrated when leaders [who] question old assumptions, traditions, and beliefs; stimulate in others new perspectives and ways of doing things; and encourage the expression of ideas and reasons (Bass, 1997, p. 133). Transformational leaders stimulate followers to be innovative and creative in approaching old situations in new ways through intellectual stimulation (Bass et al., 2003). This transformational behavior lessens the burnout symptoms such as cynicism and negativism and a tendency to be rigid, and inflexible in thinking (Freudenberger, 1977). These four transformational leadership behaviors can ease followers the feelings of emotional depletion and loss of motivation and commitment. Transformational leadership and burnout. Research is mixed on the relationship between leadership styles and burnout. Seltzer, Numerof, and Bass (1989) showed that transformational leadership style helped reduce burnout, while management-by-exception leadership did the opposite in a sample of employed MBA students. Corrigan, Diwan, Campion, and Rashid (2002) found that transformational leadership had a negative relationship with burnout among mental health professionals. However, Stordeur, Dhoore, and Vandenbergh (2001) contended that transformational leadership and contingent reward had no relationship with emotional exhaustion among hospital nursing staff. Hetland, Sandal, and Johnsen (2007) found that transformational leadership was not related to emotional exhaustion, and transactional leadership had no relationship with any of the three dimensions of burnout. Existing literature indicated a need for further study of the mechanism through which transformational leadership had an impact on burnout, particularly in the school setting (Gill, Flaschner, Shachar, 2006; Griffith, 2004; Hetland et al., 2007). Calling and Burnout Calling. Calling, as defined by Fry (2003) is the experience of transcendence or how one makes a difference through service to others and, in doing so, derives meaning and purpose in life (p. 703). Fry posits that calling is a critical part of workplace spiritual well-being that provides one a sense of making a difference and therefore that ones life has meaning (p. 714). Followers who experience a sense of calling are more committed to their organization and more productive in their workplace. Markow and Klenke (2005) defined calling as work performed out of a strong sense of inner direction (p. 12). Calling is often described as something that pertains to careers that an individual sees as promoting the greater good or being meaningful to society (Duffy Sedlacek, 2007). Baumeister (1991) discussed the job-career-calling concept in Meanings of Life. Baumeister stated that those who view work as a job perform tasks solely to obtain things that they want. He also stated that this att itude is often prevalent among lower classes, who tend to be people with less education. In contrast, a person with a calling feels compelled to perform a kind of work, whether it is from a higher calling (as is often stated in association with religion) or a calling to meet a societal need (for example, higher military enlistment rates after Pearl Harbor). A calling might also come from an individuals inner sense of having a special talent or gift. A calling satisfies the need for being valuable to others and society. A calling engenders a great deal of personal meaning, linking a vocation and an individuals value base. According to Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, and Tipton (2008), a calling is when work becomes inseparable from the individuals life and character. The person works for the fulfillment that doing the work brings to the individual. A calling links a person to the larger community, and the person is making a contribution to the entire community. In Fry, Nisiewicz, Vitucci, and Cedillo (2007) study, calling can be enhanced by giving employees recognition can do this, along with giving them a sense of worth through service and a positive attitude (p. 20). Transformational leadership and calling. Transformational leadership is a motivation-based theory of how to move the organization toward its desired future. Transformational leaders motivate followers by raising their levels of consciousness about the importance of goals (Northouse, 2004). The most important role that the transformational leader plays is to paint a vision of a desired future state and communicate it in a way that causes followers to believe and have faith in the vision of organizational transformation to make the pain of change worth the effort (Fry, 2003, p. 702). A literature review revealed that the vision exhibited by spiritual leaders is predictive of ones sense of calling (Fry, 2003; Fry et al., 2007; Fry, Vitucci, Cedillo, 2005; Malone Fry, 2003). Fry (2003) suggested creating a compelling vision that has a broad appeal to key stakeholders, defines the destination and journey, reflects high ideals, encourages hope/faith, and establishes a standard of excellence provides followers with a sense of calling that motivates them to believe that they make a difference to other people (p. 695). A transformational leader who also possesses these qualities develops a vision and communicates it effectively through exemplary leadership behaviors such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation to their followers. Consequently, followers have hope and derive meaning and purpose in their experiences. For example, Fry (2003) explained that the vision displayed by a spiritual leader incl udes establishing a standard of excellence which builds followers confidence and trust in leaders. As mentioned earlier, this behavior is a characteristic of idealized influence. Transformational leadership moves followers beyond immediate self-interests to a shared vision and mission in the organization through idealized influence. The vision also vividly portray a journey that, when undertaken, will give me a sense of calling, of ones life having meaning and making a difference (Fry, 2003, p. 718). This quality is a characteristic of inspirational motivation that awakens intrinsic motivation of followers (Boerner et al., 2007). According to Bass (1999), followers under transformational leaders are generally more self-assured and find more meaning in their work. Consequently, teachers will find personal meaning in their work or feel called to their work. Coladarci (1992) posited that teaching is viewed as a profession with high initial commitment and is a calling for many entering the profession. Teachers who find personal meaning in their work or feel called to their work have a deep commitment to their profession (Hakanen et al., 2006). The great value they find in teaching and the feeling that they are helping others and working toward the greater good of society may reduce the feelings of strain and distancing of themselves from the students (i.e., depersonalization), and raise the evaluations of their personal accomplishment. Fry proposed a causal framework that the followers sense of calling is predictive of the organizational outcomes, such as commitment and productivity. Based on the theory of calling, the present study hypothesizes that teachers who have a high level of calling will experience low emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and high personal accomplishment. Mediating effect of calling. Though existing literature indicated a direct effect of transformational leadership on levels of burnout, this study proposes that the linkage between transformational leadership and burnout may be indirect, or intervened by the sense of calling. According to Fry (2003), the followers sense of calling mediated the relationship between the vision exhibited by a spiritual leader and the organizational outcomes, such as commitment and productivity. Fry et al. (2005) examined a newly formed Apache Longbow helicopter attack squadron and found strong empirical evidence that calling is a mediator between the qualities of spiritual leadership and organizational outcomes, such as loyalty and productivity. Followers who have a higher sense of calling are more committed to their organizations and more productive. Malone and Fry (2003) conducted a longitudinal field study of elemental schools and found that spiritual leadership had a significant impact on organizatio nal commitment and unit productivity mediated by the sense of calling. In Markow and Klenkes (2005) study, calling mediates the relationship between personal meaning and organizational commitment. Fry et al.s (2007) study of a municipal government revealed that ones sense of calling is a mediator of the relationship between the vision of a leader and organizational commitment and productivity. Fry, Hannah, Noel, and Walumbwa (2011) found that organizational commitment and unit performance were fully mediated by the sense of calling by studying a sample of cadets at the United States Military Academy. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that transformational leaders exert their effects on job burnout among special educators through the sense of calling. Given that teaching is a field where many express a sense of calling, the extent that calling accounts for the relation between transformational leadership and burnout among special educators needs to be explored. One of the most powerful influences that transformational leaders have on followers is to create a compelling vision that provides one with a sense of calling through service to others, and therefore find meaning and purpose in life. Transformational leadership fosters a positive work attitude and provides followers with a sense of meaning in their work, which in turn boosts their intrinsic motivation and energy and enables them to perform their best. Control Variables and Burnout Studies on demographic variables, i.e., gender, age, and race, and their relation to burnout have shown differing outcomes. Maslach (1982) stated that women tended to experience more emotional exhaustion, yet men are more likely to exhibit depersonalization behaviors. Brewer and McMahan (2004) also reported that women were more prone to job stress and burnout than men. However, Maslach and Jackson (1981) reported no relationship between gender and burnout. Several studies have associated burnout with age, with burnout usually affecting the younger employees (Brewer McMahan, 2004; Maslach Jackson, 1981; Russell et al., 1987). No findings have supported a difference in burnout among ethnic groups (Brewer McMahan, 2004; Maslach, 1982). In Kilgore and Griffins (1998) study, they found less experienced special educators had more burnout. Method Hypotheses Based on the above discussion, the following hypotheses were formulated for testing the mediating effect of calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and burnout of special educators: H1: Transformational leadership is negatively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is positively related to personal accomplishment among special educators. H10: Transformational leadership is not negatively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is not positively related to personal accomplishment among special educators. H2: Transformational leadership is positively related to the calling. H20: Transformational leadership is not positively related to the calling. H3: Calling is negatively related to special educators emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is positively related to personal accomplishment. H30: Calling is not negatively related to special educators emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and is not positively related to personal accomplishment. H4: Calling mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and each of the three dimensions of burnout. H40: Calling does not mediate the relationship between transformational leadership and any of the three dimensions of burnout. Participants and Data Collection The sample in the study consisted of special education teachers who exclusively teach special education students in Maryland non-public and public separate day schools in Anne Arundel County. Separate day schools refer to those that enroll students between six and 21 years old who spend greater than 50% of the school day in a separate day facility that does not serve students without disabilities (Maryland State Department of Education, 2010). These schools are primarily self-contained facilities, not residential facilities.  The subjects were recruited through the MANSEF (Maryland Association of Nonpublic Special Education Facilities) network of non-public private special education schools as well as public separate day schools in Anne Arundel County. This population of teachers works with students with disabilities that preclude them from receiving education services in regular education classrooms within public schools. Initial contact was made through the MANSEF director and th e Director of Special Education of Anne Arundel County. Further contact was made with the educational directors of these schools to discuss the proposed study. The directors were informed of all of the information that would be required of the teachers (e.g., signature on Informed Consent, a short demographic questionnaire, the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Teachers, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, and the Calling Scale). Once the directors agreed to have the study conducted in their schools, the survey packets were disseminated to the directors for distribution to the teachers. Each packet had a cover letter that provides an introduction of the research project and invites teachers to participate in the study. Teachers were asked to sign the Informed Consent prior to their participation of the study. Stamped addressed envelopes were provided in each packet for teachers to return their completed surveys. Teachers who declined to participate or partially complete the survey s were not included in the study. Each of the surveys was distributed and collected in the same manner to ensure consistency in data collection. According to Gall, Gall, and Borg (2003), consistency in data collection procedures is essential for reliability. It was estimated that it would take approximately twenty minutes to complete these three measurements and the short demographic questionnaire. To ensure confidentiality, all questionnaires were completed anonymously, and only a coding number rather than a name was used to designate each respondent. No other personal identification information such as social security numbers, telephone numbers, and addresses were solicited on these questionnaires. All survey forms were locked up in a safe place. The size of the population was estimated at 700 non-public special educators in MANSEF schools and an additional 100 special educators in Anne Arundel County separate day schools. That makes the total estimated population of 800 special educators. Although all of the directors granted permission for the survey to be administered in her or his school, actual teacher participation was voluntary. As a result, a total of 256 teachers from 35 MANSEF schools (n = 250) and two Anne Arundel County separate day schools (n = 6) returned their completed surveys anonymously, which yielded a 32% response rate of the estimated population. Measurements Maslach burnout inventory for teachers. The construct of teacher burnout was measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory for Teachers (MBI Form Ed: Maslach, Jackson, Schwab, 1986). The MBI consists of 22 statements regarding attitudes and feelings about work (Maslach Jackson, 1981). There are nine items relating to emotional exhaustion, five items relating to depersonalization, and eight items relating to personal accomplishment (Maslach Jackson, 1981). The participants responded to the statements based on a 7-point frequency scale (0 = never, 6 = every day). Examples of statements included in the survey include I feel emotionally drained from work and I feel very energetic (Maslach et al., 1986). The MBI produces three areas of scores: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment (Leiter Maslach, 1988). As discussed earlier, these factors have been identified as major indicators of burnout and the MBI has been used extensively in studies examining burnout ( Byrne, 1993; Fore et al., 2002; Gill et al., 2006; Hakanen et al., 2006; Leiter Maslach, 1988; van Dick Wagner, 2001). Maslach and Jackson (1981) reported that the reliability of the subscales range from .71 to .90 using Cronbachs coefficient alpha. The test-retest reliability ranges from .53 to .89 (Maslach Jackson, 1981). Multifactor leadership questionnaire. The construct of transformational leadership was measured by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X-Short) developed by Avolio, Bass, and Jung (1999). The subordinates rated their leaders on 45 leadership items on a 5-point frequency scale (0 = never, 4 = frequently if not always). The MLQ is comprised of nine subscales, which assess a full range of leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leaderships. Although measured, the constructs of transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors were not included in the regression analyses as the preliminary analysis did not show a correlation between these two leadership styles and job burnout. According to de Vaus (2001), a correlation between two variables is a pre-requisite for establishing a causal relationship (p. 179). The five subscales used to identify transformational leadership style are: (1) idealized attributes, (2) idealized behaviors, (3) inspirational motivation, (4) intellectual stimulation, and (5) individualized consideration (Bass et al., 2003). For the subscale idealized attributes, an example item is (my supervisor) goes beyond self-interest for the good of the group. An example item pertaining to the subscale idealized behaviors is (my supervisor) specifies the importance of having a strong sense of purpose. An example item that measures the subscale inspirational motivation is (my supervisor) articulates a compelling vision of the future. The subscale intellectual stimulation includes items such as (my supervisor) seeks differing perspectives when solving problems. An example item for the individualized considerations subscale is (my supervisor) spends time teaching and coaching. The supervisor received a score on each of the five subscales, and together, those allowed for describi ng how frequently he or she engaged in transformational leadership behaviors. For example, high scoring supervisors displayed transformational leadership behaviors more frequently than those low scorers. Bass and Avolio (2000) reported reliabilities of the subscales ranging from .74 to .91 based on Cronbachs coefficient alpha. Calling. The construct of calling was measured by the Calling Scale developed by Markow and Klenke (2005) based on Baumeisters (1991) work. Respondents provided ratings on twelve items that assess three subscales such as job, calling, and career on a seven point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 7 = a great deal). As discussed earlier, the major purpose of this study is to examine the mediating role of teachers calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and job burnout, therefore, only the calling subscale was included in the analysis. The subscale of calling was measured by six items, such as I feel that I must do the work I do it is part of who I am and the work that I do expresses truths and values that I believe are important (Markow Klenke, 2005). Markow and Klenke reported that the scale demonstrated an internal consistency reliability of .88. Control variables. Teachers were asked to fill out a short demographic questionnaire. It included items asking about gender, age, and years in teaching. There was also a question asking whether the teacher was a public or non-public employee. Based on the research, demographic variables do not have a consistent relationship with burnout. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using one SPSS file combining all instruments to examine the effects of transformational leadership and calling on job burnout among special education teachers. Descriptive statistics were produced to summarize the demographic data as well as survey measurements in this study. Pearson Product-Moment Coefficients were also computed to determine the correlation among study variables. To determine whether transformational leadership has an indirect effect mediated by calling on the various dimensions of teachers burnout, a mediation model was tested (Baron Kenny, 1986). A mediation model is to identify the mechanism through which an independent variable accounts for the variation of a dependent variable. To clarify the meaning of mediation, a path diagram was used to describe the relationship among independent variable, mediator, and dependent variable. Panels A and B in Figure 1 illustrated the designated paths of a direct effect and a total effect, where transformational leadership is the predictor variable, burnout is the outcome variable, calling is the mediating variable. a is the pathway from transformational leadership to calling, b is the pathway from calling to burnout, c (Panel A) is the direct effect of transformational leadership on burnout, controlling for the effect of the mediator, calling, and c (Panel B) is the total effect of transformational le adership, without controlling for the effect of the mediator. R2 was reported to measure the faction of the total variance explained by the model. To get over the overestimation problem of R2, adjusted R2 was also reported to measure the variability in the outcome that the model explains in the population rather than the sample (Tabachnick Fidell, 2007). This study conducted two methods to examine the extent to which calling accounts for the relationship between transformational leadership and burnout. First, this study followed the four-step procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986) to assess the mediation hypothesis of calling. Second, this study performed a more statistically rigorous bootstrapping method to examine the mediating effect of calling on the relationship between transformational leadership and job burnout. Bootstrapping is a nonparametric approach to effect-size estimation and hypothesis testing that makes no assumptions about the shape of the distributions o

history :: essays research papers

The Shaping of America: Consumer Culture, Suburbanization and Automobile The trends that have been most instrumental in the shaping of America over the past sixty years have been suburbanization and the development of our consumer culture. These two phenomena have changed not only the face of America, but also the fabric of our society, our values and aspirations. Suburbanization and consumer culture are broad, sweeping terms that encompass many different catalysts of change. However, the automobile is an important product and tool of both of these institutions. This paper examines the inundation of American society by the automobile during the post war era as a key catalyst for the rise of consumer culture, its role in facilitating suburbanization and some of the negative impacts the automobile has had on America. Over the past sixty years America has changed greatly to become what it is today, and these changes have largely been driven by our national love affair with the automobile. Starting in the 1920’s America began its shift towards a consumer culture as the economic growth of the nation began to depend more on the proliferation of consumer goods than of capital goods. Even at the outset of this trend, the automobile held a significant place in the new consumer economy. The automobile, which was once thought of as a rare luxury, was being sold by the millions. Assembly lines were becoming more efficient, thus allowing cars to be made more cheaply allowing the price of automobiles to drop. The growth of the automobile helped stimulate the economy through its dependence on other industries such as glass, rubber and steel, which were connected to the production of cars. These automobile related industries created new jobs, greater affluence and more spending power for millions of American consumers. Even at the beginning of America’s transformation into the consumer culture of today the automobile was at the forefront this conversion. The automobile, besides being a product of the new consumer culture in America, also quickly became a major tool to increase this trend’s influence. The automobile, and its cousin the truck, were increasingly used by corporations and businesses to market and distribute their products. Corporations could transport products further and faster for less money to reach the consumer. This, in turn, allowed for wider market areas in commerce, selling more products to more people and generating greater revenue. The automobile also worked to the benefit of consumerism because the increase in privately owned automobiles gave more people the ability to travel.

Alzheimers Disease Essay example -- Alzheimers Disease Essays

Alzheimer's Disease On the first day of class, it was proposed that "Brain=Behavior," implying that not only all actions and emotions can be explained by neuronal activity, but also the very sense of self which is so important to many of us. This latter implication was met with considerable resistance. Surely there must be more to an individual's personality and Self than a bunch of patterns of activity across neurons. Through the research I have done for this paper, I have discovered that disorders such as Alzheimer's disease add a new twist to the debate surrounding the origin of the Self. My purpose here is to provide an overview of Alzheimer's disease, including its neurobiological basis, the differences between early and late onset, and some of the possible causes, and then to readdress the question of whether the Self can be traced to the Brain in light of this information. Over the last few decades, Alzheimer's disease has come to be recognized as the most common form of dementia among the world's older population, affecting an estimated 4 million people in the United States alone (1, 2). It is characterized by progressive loss of memory, language and reasoning skills, and other cognitive functions, as well as changes in personality, such as increased aggressiveness (1, 2). No definite cause has been discovered, and it is as yet without a cure; however, much progress has been and continues to be made, and many scientists believe that a cure will eventually be developed. Although the causes are unknown, research has shown that the disease begins in the entorhinal cortex and spreads first to the hippocampus and then proceeds to other parts of the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex. Since these two regions are ... ...comprehensive summary of current research regarding the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of Alzheimer's, including care. In addition to this wealth of information, the site has excellent graphical representations accessible by links throughout the text, as well as a glossary of technical terms at the end. 2. http://hcs.harvard.edu:80/~husn/BRAIN/vol3/b96txt.html#EarlyandLate: Early and Late Onset as Subdivisions of Alzheimer's Disease, an article by Elizabeth Kensinger published in the online journal, The Harvard BRAIN. Explores and explains research to date regarding these two different forms of Alzheimer's disease, covering the "symptomatic, biological, genetic, neurophysiological and neurological characteristics" of both early and late onset subtypes. Then proceeds to draw conclusions from this data, regarding future approaches to diagnosis and treatment.

Saudi Student Organization; Objectives

Just like any other organizations for international students in the university, we aimed to provide family oriented environment for our members. We are genuinely inviting other Saudi students therefore to get involved with â€Å"The Saudi Student Organization at USI†, as we firmly believe that our common culture and social orientation will help us to work more effectively as family and organization. This organization will represent Saudi culture, civilization and history and link them to other USI students of whatever nationality. Furthermore, this organization will help strengthen the social bonds of Saudi students as we are going to redefine the common misconceptions about us. Basically one of its objectives is to increase the members’ understanding towards Saudi and Middle Eastern cultures and to provide them with better understanding with American culture as well. In this way, Arabic students will be able to cope and adjust to the American culture easier and faster. Since, we are anticipating an increasing number of students from Saudi Arabia; we are also aiming to increase the number of our members in SSO. Assuredly, this organization will respond effectively to the members’ special needs and to ensure smooth and positive integration and relationship between other students in the campus. The Saudi Student Organization will provide many opportunities to students from Saudi Arabia and the like to share the beauty and authenticity of their culture and tradition and thus engaging in meaningful and educational dialogues with American students and others. Apparently, the main objective of this is to increase mutual understanding among individuals inside the campus. Furthermore, to be involved in this organization will give the Arabic students opportunities to continue fulfilling and practicing their tradition and religion within their co Arabic members who share the same beliefs. Therefore, there will never be a sense of isolation in this organization since every member can always find something or someone to relate to. They can always accumulate updates towards their culture within the organization and can share ideas and thoughts on how to reaffirm their identity in a foreign country like United States. Meanwhile, SSO will also represent and address the concerns of its members in the administration. Thus, SSO guarantees its members that they always have a voice through their support group. New members, that are those who just came from their country of origin, will be guaranteed that they will acquire enough orientation through SSO about the university as a whole; its culture, trends, academic pattern and sense of community. Furthermore, members will be exposed too to various activities of the university inside and outside. In this way, they can widen their experiences towards different culture and people and as a result they will have more chance to widen their social network, learning and wisdom. Apparently SSO will guarantee its members that learning will not stop within the confinement of the four corners of the classroom but rather SSO will assure them that we will provide them free learning activities and experiences. These objectives will make the members more tolerant and flexible in a society where there is an apparent diversity of culture and different set of belief system. Aside from the aforementioned objectives, SSO will also help its members to develop their leadership skills and self esteem and to explore their full potentials. This will be beneficial for the application of their profession in the future. Interestingly, joining SSO will be a good and wise investment for future endeavors. Members will also be exposed to different kinds of experiences that will even give them many opportunities to help people through sharing and camaraderie. In the future, they will become tolerant and flexible individuals who are prepared to face different kinds of circumstances. Throughout these objectives, SSO conclusively encourage its members to be globally competitive to ensure success not just materially but socially, spiritually and intellectually. We are thus encouraging our co Saudi students to join Saudi Student Organization (SSO) as we want you to experience the fulfillment of our goals and objectives.

Birthday Party

A birthday is a very wonderful day. Everybody likes to celebrate it. It is a good opportunity to spend time with friends, parents, relatives. My 17th birthday party last year was a really memorable occasion. I celebrated it at home in the evening. All my friends came and we had a lot of fun. Preparations began a day before the celebration. My mother and I cleaned the house. Many delicious dishes were cooked, the rooms were decorated with balloons and steamers. In the morning of birthday party day my father went shopping and bought everything we needed.All the invitations were sent one week before the celebration. In the morning on my birthday my parents put the presents near my bed. So, the first thing I saw when I opened my eyes was my presents. My mom and daddy and my little brother came to my room to congratulate me and to sing ? «Happy Birthday? ». By the evening food was cooked, the table was laid. We put on evening suits and dresses and waited for the guests. The flat looke d nice and cosy. I was very glad to meet my guests. I got a lot of flowers, presents and Birthday cards.We had an abundant dinner on this day. My mother bought in the birthday cake and I blew the candles out. We danced and sang songs, played games and laughed, Joked, told funny stories, listened to the music. I think that my birthday is one of the best days in a year. The entire evening was a huge success and everyone agreed that we had a lot of fun. It certainly was the best party I have ever had, because of the great pleasure it gave me to see so many of my friends and relatives together in the same place. I think I shall remember my party for a long time to come.A birthday is a very wonderful day. Everybody likes to celebrate it. It is a good opportunity to spend time with friends, parents, relatives. My 17th birthday party last year was a really memorable occasion. I celebrated it at home in the evening. All my friends came and we had a lot of fun. Preparations began a day befor e the celebration. My mother and I cleaned the house. Many delicious dishes were cooked, the rooms were decorated with balloons and steamers. In the morning of birthday party day my father went shopping and bought everything we needed.All the invitations were sent one week before the celebration. In the morning on my birthday my parents put the presents near my bed. So, the first thing I saw when I opened my eyes was my presents. My mom and daddy and my little brother came to my room to congratulate me and to sing ? «Happy Birthday? ». By the evening food was cooked, the table was laid. We put on evening suits and dresses and waited for the guests. The flat looked nice and cosy. I was very glad to meet my guests. I got a lot of flowers, presents and Birthday cards. We had an abundant dinner on this day.My mother bought in the birthday cake and I blew the candles out. We danced and sang songs, played games and laughed, Joked, told funny stories, listened to the music. I think tha t my birthday is one of the best days in a year. The entire evening was a huge success and everyone agreed that we had a lot of fun. It certainly was the best party I have ever had, because of the great pleasure it gave me to see so many of my friends and relatives together in the same place. I think I shall remember my party for a long time to come. Birthday Party By marusks05

Practical advice for business Essay

E-commerce has radically revolutionalized the act of selling and buying, introducing both speed and efficiency. It refers to the process of buying and selling goods and services over the internet. It stands for Electronic Commerce, referring to carrying out of trade transactions through the internet. The concept of E-commerce owes it roots to the 1960s after the introduction of electronic data interchange (EDI) . From the days of EDI, E-commerce has undergone many rapid changes that have seen it grow into an efficient instrument evidenced today; the internet. This is a technology that still continues to marvel humanity, it has reduced long hours of wait and long distances traveled to a click of a mouse over the worldwide web. E-commerce involves a multiplicity of varieties ranging from banking, marketing, logistics and many others. A website is a collection of interconnected files available on the worldwide web providing information about a specific topic or organization. It exercises the overfull combinations of multimedia texts, images and sounds. Access to these files requires the use of a web browser like the Microsoft internet explorer. Almost every organization or institution owns a website, with an intention of providing relevant information either to the public or to specific people. It is this website that has totally changed how business organizations are carrying out their trade. Advertising, marketing, purchasing and may other processes have all changed to embrace this modern phenomena and hope to increase customer satisfaction. A website is created with an intention of easing a customer’s access to information he or she may require from a particular organization. It should be attractive by designed, but not too flashy to distract the customer. Implementing a website simply refers to operationalism of it (www. bsinesslink. gov. uk). This is done after a website has been designed, planned and created. The first step in implementing a web page is to design a homepage that should load quickly. This can be achieved by designing a short page, but not too short such that it compromises on the subject of the site (www. rocketface. com). The images too on the webpage should also not be unnecessarily large; this is achieved through the use of graphic software that maintains the images at an agreeable size and shape. There are some few tips on implementation to ensure that the best possible results are got. (www. rocketface. com) †¢ Background music is highly unadvisable as it might distract the web visitors. †¢ The web page should contain no videos; these should be made available as a visitor browses deeper. The next step in implementing a website is to resize the graphics. These graphics should not be larger than they are supposed to be and not be too small as to obscure clarity. Music, video or images should strictly not be put on the web page but should be put further inside so as not to cause distractions to a visitor. Ensure too that navigational tools are available on the webpage, these are tools or commands that when clicked provide instantaneous link either forward or backwards, this in addition to a home link to help a visitor browse through the various pages easily. An FAQ page should also be installed; this is a page that displays the most frequently asked questions saving the organization time instead of having to answer the questions over and over again. Install an FTP program (File Transfer Protocol). It is a program that aids in transferring files from one computer to another, allowing access to any files in a computer connected to the internet. It facilitates either a download or an upload (www. thecomputershow. com). After all the above have been accomplished, it is important before the site can be accessed over the internet, to test the system. This ensures that errors are detected and corrected early enough. It also helps to access how fast it can load and respond during peak times as well as how easily the visitors will be able to navigate through the site. The website now needs to be rolled out or launched out to the people. It is up to the organization to decide whether it will be availed on the internet without hype or through a promotion. The web address through whichever means used should be widely promoted to ensure that the potential customers are aware of it (www. ixda. org). Factors to consider when implementing a website There are several factors that should be put into consideration when implementing a website. It is these factors that will dictate the general outlook of the websites. There is a need to analyze the target audience of the website. The skill level and knowledge of the expected audience should be analyzed as well as the state of technology they are likely to be using. Be it slow or fast computers, high or low quality. It should also be analyzed on the expectations of the audience, what they may want to find out from your website. They might be looking for prices, physical location of the organization or manual. This will have an impact on the implementation (www. techsoup. org) The content of the website also should be put into consideration when implementing a website. This includes whether the information should enable either printing or downloading and whether it is available directly on the screen. Nature of the organization as well as the nature of its product will also influence the web implementation. It will affect the background of the site, the fonts to be used, language, and flashiness of the visual images. Should the fonts indicate seriousness or fun, the colors to be used will also be influenced by the nature of products or services. Funeral homes or hospitals are not expected to have similar presentation with music stores or boutiques (drupal. org) Impact of a Website As noted before, websites continue to ease communication between customers and business organizations. Now transactions are conducted over a matter of seconds or minutes regardless of the distance and location of the two components. If a website is created and implemented effectively, it can result to a turnaround of a business. A website presents a ripe opportunity for an organization to expand its clientele due to its ability to reach a large number of people at the same time. It has no physical limitations and can be structured to reach people of different linguas, whenever they maybe providing them with current and updated information regarding the organization’s products and services provided. This can help an organization expand. Its customer base and consequently their revenue. It is an opportunity for the small companies to compete on equal ground with the big companies at no additional costs. This can be done through the proper imaging and designing of the website. The structure and design of a website does not relate with the size of the business entity. A small company can prepare even a better website than a bigger one. Website ensures that organization compete with each other from the same footing. What differs then is the presentation of the webpage (www. 10e20webdesign. com). Websites have seen companies cutting on the costs of doing business, especially reducing on labor costs. For a business to be competitive in the business, it requires good marketers and sales people who take up a lot of company’s resources. This can be changed through a website. E-Marketing allows a company to get hold of a customer without any physical interaction. Although it has a disadvantage as immediate feedback is not certain. It can lead to reduced operation costs for an organization as it does not have to maintain leads of people to deal with potential customers. Marketing is done through the web and those who are interested can get in touch with the organization through E-mails. It saves the company a lot of finance as it can reach long distance customers without any physical traveling. E-marketing is not also limited to hours. It is available to customers 24 hours every day wit no additional costs (www. passioncomputing. com. au) Administration costs are also reduced due to the decreased paperwork. Information on customers is gotten and recorded online. By providing information on how to do it manuals and answers to the frequently asked questions, an organization ends up reducing the number of public relations staff (www. design4dot. com). Follow up calls to customers are replaced by E-mails, promotion cost are cut, and need of prints is reduced greatly (www. yhanpolo. com). It should be noted that simple creation of a website does not eliminate the need of other follow up systems like calls and mails. Alot of businesses lack in the traditional customer service systems or customer inquiry programs. These websites are more structured to suit marketing needs with minimal concerns for customers navigational needs. Not all people are comfortable in dealing with an impersonal organization and an organization should use retain the traditional system as a backup to the modern technology. There a number of negative impacts websites may have on anorganisation arising from the disavantages of implementing a website. One major disadvantage arises from the stiff competition of products in the website, it is a maze of information that needs to be navigated through. Before a customer gets to see your products he or she shall have come across many competing products that may be superior to yours. With an intention of maximising their satisfaction they might opt to go with the competitors products (www. quickregister. net) Many online customers’ nowadys are having a preconceived perception that some online marketers are out to make a killing and hence wary of giving their credit cards details. They fear these details may be stolen. This presents the biggest challenge to organisations today because customers would wish to be guaranteed the security of their details to protect themselves from unscrupulous dealers. The issue of cost also arises, every technology has a catch. The cost of designing a website, implementing, and maintenance costs have to be factored in. There is also the addition cost of softwares and hardwares needed to suport these systems. All in all, the benefits of a website surpasses those of the traditional means. Marketing and administration costs are minimised. The firm too is armed with a potential of competing with bigger organisations offering the same products. References History. Electronic Commerce. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://flysyko2. netfirsm. com/ecommerce/history. htm Website advantages, 2005. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www10e20webdesign. com/website-design-planner-advantages. htm Website advantages. Passion computing http://www. passincomputing. com. au/articles/website-advantages. aspx Advantages of a website. 2007 design 4 dot. com. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www. design4dot. com/advantates-of-a-website. htm Advantages of a website. 2006. Yhanpolo. com. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www. yhanpolo. com/web-design-articles/advantages-website. htm Practical advice for business. Business link. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://ww. businesslink. gov. uk/blotg/action/detail? type=RESOURCES&Hemld=1075383651 Susan Tenby, 2000. Implementing your website. Site wise: laying the foundation. Tech soup. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://ww. techsoup. org/learningcentre/webbuilding/page5065. ifm Planning a website2006. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://drupal. org/node/88594 Website implementation, 2007. Webmaster tutorial. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www. rocketface. com/implement-website/implement-website. html AlGrovett: Designing and implementing your website. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www. thecomputershow. com/computershow/news/websitecreation. htm How to implement a dialogue, 2007. IX DA. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://beta. ixda. org/discuss. php? post=11054 Chameleon net to develop and implement new website for telehouse Europe. 2007. Chameleon net. Viewed on 12/8/2007 http://www. chameleonnet. co. uk/news-item. asp? id=197 Internet marketing. Advantages and disadvantages. Quickregister. net website promotion Articles. http://www. quickregister. net/articles/internetmarketing/internet_marketing_Advantages_and_Disadvantages. html